Encouraging the Development of Disability Allies
Nancy J. Evans, Jennifer L. Assadi, Todd K. Herriott
What does it mean to have a disability in today’s society, and what does it mean to be a disability ally? As the literature we review on disability paradigms illustrates, the concept of disability has been given many meanings. While disability is usually considered an individual characteristic, social justice advocates, as well as others who come from a constructionist perspective, argue that it is society, not the individual, that creates disabilities by imposing standards of normalcy that exclude those who are different physically, emotionally, or cognitively. Disabled People’s International (1982, as cited in Barnes and Mercer, 2003) made an important distinction between the concepts of impairment and disability, defining impairment as “the functional limitation within the individual caused by physical, mental, or sensory impairment” (p. 66) and disability as “the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers” (p. 66). Barnes and Mercer underscored that “the presence of an impairment does not mean automatic transfer to the status of a disabled person. It becomes an issue at the point where social barriers exclude that individual from participation in everyday activities” (p. 66). We subscribe to a constructionist philosophy while acknowledging that persons’ unique selves, including their physical, emotional, and mental capacities, as well as their other social identities (for example, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation), greatly influence their worldview, selfperceptions, and how they are perceived and treated by others. The concept of disability allies appears to be nonexistent in the literature. Our review suggests that while allies have been defined in a general
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sense, the idea of being an ally to persons with disabilities has previously gone unexplored, at least with regard to the scholarship of student affairs and related professions. Why is that? Recall the definition of social justice allies presented in Chapter One (this volume): “members of dominant social groups (e.g., men, Whites, heterosexuals) who are working to end the system of oppression that gives them greater privilege and power based upon their social group membership” (Broido, 2000, p. 3). We propose that the pervasive societal view of disability as an innate medical condition rather than a creation of societal oppression precludes an understanding that individuals with disabilities would benefit from or need allies. Changing this attitude and increasing awareness among individuals who are not disabled that their able-bodied identity is ascribed and affords them power and privilege is a necessary first step in developing disability allies. In addition, most people, particularly college students, faculty, and staff, have had little contact with individuals with disabilities. Until the passage of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, people with disabilities did not attend college in great numbers, and at the presecondary level, children with disabilities often attended separate schools (Hall and Belch, 2000). As a result, few people have had the opportunity to learn about various impairments and to understand the experiences of individuals with those impairments. Lack of interaction with individuals with disabilities can result in attitudes of superiority or panic, either of which may be the result of fear of appearing stupid or not knowing what to do (Marks, 1999). In this chapter, we first review the paradigms through which disability has been understood and the implications of each. We then examine research on attitudes toward individuals with disabilities and ways to create attitude change and encourage ally development. Next, we present findings of a study we conducted that suggests ways in which individuals who are not disabled can be allies to students with disabilities. Finally, we discuss actions that disability allies can take to work for social justice. We approach this topic with varied worldviews that have shaped our thinking. Nancy Evans is a person with mobility impairment caused by childhood polio. In recent years, she has experienced post-polio syndrome involving increasing weakness and fatigue, leading her to use a wheelchair most of the time. Only in the past few years has she begun a scholarly exploration of the topic of disability and its implications for college students as well as herself. Jennifer Assadi identifies as a disability ally. Prior to college, she had minimal contact with and knowledge of people with disabilities. She began to learn more by joining a research team that studied the out-of-class experiences of students with disabilities and working closely with Nancy. Through these experiences, she has become aware of the difficulties individuals with disabilities face daily and has become sensitive to their needs and challenges, which has encouraged her to educate herself and others further. Todd Herriott is also a disability ally and is an
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advocate working in higher education. As a student affairs professional who provides services to both students who identify as having a disability and institutional agents to ensure equal access as mandated by federal legislation, he has begun to critically examine the manner in which students with disabilities are served. Recently he has been exploring methods of changing institutional paradigms regarding disability services to ones that are grounded in a social constructivist perspective.
Disability Paradigms The medical model has historically shaped society’s view of disability (Hughes, 2002). As Hughes noted, “Disability has been understood as a sickness, and disabled people have been understood as invalids” (p. 58). Within this framework, the lives of persons with disabilities are assumed to center around their inability to do things and their need to be taken care of by others (Michalko, 2002). A less pejorative, and therefore more acceptable, relabeling of the medical model, the functional limitations approach (Jones, 1996), focuses on the ways in which disability affects individuals’ ability to perform everyday tasks within the parameters of what is considered “normal.” Individuals using this perspective still view disability as “an individual matter requiring individual adaptation” (Michalko, 2002, p. 161). They ignore the fact that society normalizes being able-bodied as the accepted way of being (Michalko, 2002). In reaction to the patronizing and debilitating manner in which individuals with disabilities have been treated in society, disability rights activists have called for the development of a collective disability identity that is political in nature and rejects society’s view of impairment as an impediment (Michalko, 2002). This minority group paradigm emphasizes the common experiences of oppression, alienation, and discrimination that individuals with disabilities experience (Jones, 1996). Although this view of disability emphasizes group identity rather than individual identity, it still focuses on the victimization of individuals with disabilities and ways that individuals must address the injustices they face. The social construction model of disability shifts attention from the individual to society. Adherents of this perspective argue that “impairment only becomes disabling because of social structures and organization” (Marks, 1999, p. 77). In effect, society creates disability by defining what is normal and what is abnormal or pathological rather than merely different. Fine and Asch (2000) noted that “by concentrating on cure or on psychological and physical restoration of the impaired person, society and the discipline of psychology have avoided the need to focus on essential changes in the environmental side of the ‘person-in-environment’ situation” (p. 338). Combining elements of the minority group model and the social constructionist perspective,
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Disability oppression theory describes the pervasive and systematic nature of discrimination toward people with disabilities ...[and] identifies the process by which people with disabilities journey toward empowerment and liberation through the establishment of equitable access to accommodation within society’s systems, and through the creation of an interdependent social structure in which all persons are connected and depend on each other [Castañeda and Peters, 2000, p. 320].
This approach focuses on elimination of “ableism,” defined by Rauscher and McClintock (1997) as “a pervasive system of discrimination and exclusion that oppresses people who have mental, emotional, and physical disabilities ...[and] operates on individual, institutional, and societal/cultural levels” (p. 198). The goal of the disability oppression approach (also called the social justice approach) is to break down the rigid cultural norms that define what is normal so that physical, emotional, cognitive, and sensory differences are accepted and valued (Rauscher and McClintock, 1997). This approach also acknowledges the roles played by varying social identities in the experiences of people with impairments and takes into account differences in the perceptions and lived experiences of individuals based on context and the nature of their impairment (Castañeda and Peters, 2000).
Attitudes Toward Individuals with Disabilities Encouraging and developing social justice attitudes and actions among students who are not disabled is necessary in order to help reduce the overt and covert barriers that exist for persons with disabilities and increase the number of disability allies in society. To accomplish this goal, there must be a clear understanding of the attitudes that exist toward individuals with disabilities and sound suggestions for transforming negative attitudes into positive ones. Factors Influencing Disability Attitudes. Researchers have conducted hundreds of studies examining individuals’ attitudes toward people with disabilities in a variety of settings, such as employment, education, and the human services field. Favazza, Kumar, and Phillipsen (as cited in Baer, Hammond, and Warren, 2004) suggested that attitudes toward individuals with disabilities are formed by three major factors: indirect experiences (how individuals with disabilities are portrayed in books, movies, and other media), direct experiences, and the attitudes of one’s primary social group (such as parents and peers) toward persons with disabilities. Other influential factors are contact, information, and communication. Contact. Researchers have paid significant attention to ways that contact can influence an individual’s attitude toward disability. Hannah (1988) suggested that positive attitudes could be the result of pleasant interactions, whereas negative attitudes could be caused by an unpleasant interaction. Several researchers reported that positive attitudes were developed when
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structured contact was created between students with disabilities and those without disabilities (Brownlee and Carrington, 2000; Maras and Brown, 1996; Slininger, Sherrill, and Jankowski, 2000). Berry and Jones (1991) found that students who were not disabled developed negative attitudes toward students with disabilities when they experienced little control over the contact and the contact was perceived as more intimate. Similarly, Fichten (1988) found that social distance, a term she used to refer to both proximity and length of interaction, affected disability attitudes of college students. For example, for relatively distant situations, such as being in a large lecture class with a student with a disability, where the likelihood of extensive interaction is minimal, attitudes were generally favorable; however, for closer situations, such as being assigned a roommate with a disability, attitudes tended to be more negative. The amount of contact has also been found to affect attitudes in a positive manner. Students who are able-bodied who experienced a high level of contact with students who have impairments showed significant gains in their level of acceptance (Favazza and Odom, 1997). In addition, Yuker (1994) reported that “there are positive attitudes when contact with disabled people includes equal status, cooperative interdependence, support from authority figures, and opportunities for individualizing outgroup members” (p. 7). Information. Knowledge or information has been found to have an impact on the attitudes that students who are not disabled develop toward students with impairments (Yuker, 1994). Knowledge can increase one’s level of perceived competence in interacting with individuals with disabilities, which researchers have found creates more favorable attitudes toward persons with disabilities (Kowalski and Rizzo, 1996). Exposing students to a curriculum that teaches about disabilities increases their awareness and knowledge and leads to more positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities, but the literature used must be accurate and followed by a structured discussion (Andrews, 1998; Baer, Hammond, and Warren, 2004; Campbell, Gilmore, and Cuskelly, 2003). Kelly, Sedlacek, and Scales (1994) found that college students who are not disabled form opinions regarding students with disabilities in stereotypical manners. By increasing knowledge, students who are not disabled may learn ways in which they are similar to students with disabilities, thus reducing the extent of negative attitudes held toward individuals with disabilities. In addition, this increase in knowledge may reduce the amount of stereotypical bias that students who are not disabled hold about students with disabilities. Communication. Researchers have found that communication and language affect attitudes toward persons with disabilities. Makas (1988) found that persons with disabilities and those without disabilities differ significantly in what they perceive as being positive attitudes toward persons with disabilities. For example, the perfectly good intention of a person who is not disabled could be perceived as negative (degrading) by a person with a
disability, thus causing that person to respond negatively. Tregaskis (2000) suggested that to encourage positive attitudes, a common language related to concepts such as impairment, disability, and exclusion needs to be shared between persons with disabilities and those without disabilities. Disability Attitude Change. Similar to most salient attitudes, those toward people with disabilities are difficult to change, and according to Horne (1988), research has yet to identify a specific procedure that is always effective in producing positive change. However, role-plays and simulations and a combination of contact and information have encouraged attitude change. Role-Plays and Simulations. Fichten (1988) suggested that role-plays that are structured as problem-solving exercises may encourage more positive attitudes. Wesson and Mandell (1989) noted that simulation activities (such as walking blindfolded, trying to read braille, or using a wheelchair) can be successful in improving the attitudes of students who are not disabled toward those who are. This is particularly the case if the activity appears to be a real experience that the individual will take seriously, is repeated a minimum of four times so the participant has repeated chances to determine how the task can be accomplished, and is observed by a peer, parent, sibling, or roommate since research has demonstrated that people are more engaged in activities if they are observed. In addition, participants should be given clear instructions so the activities are understood and done correctly, and they should reflect on the experience through writing or discussion, since reflection contributes to internalization of experiences. Combining Contact and Information. Many researchers have found that to change attitudes, contact and knowledge must be combined (Pernice and Lys, 1996; Fichten, 1988; Horne, 1988). Beattie, Anderson, and Antonak (1997) reported that a more favorable attitude toward students with disabilities can be developed by combining information, indirect contact (such as viewing videotapes), and direct contact (for example, having a professor with a visible disability). Yuker (1994) suggested that an attitudinal shift may occur if the following conditions exist between students with disabilities and those without disabilities: equal status, common goals, intimate rather than casual contact, and a pleasant or rewarding contact.
Encouraging Disability Ally Development Developing positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities is a necessary but not sufficient first step in becoming a disability ally. Additional learning is needed to support individuals with disabilities and advocate for social justice for this population. There has been a paucity of scholarship addressing strategies for encouraging the development of disability allies. Therefore, the following suggestions are based on literature about ally development in general and ally development for other groups (for example, women, persons of color, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
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individuals). We are careful to note some of the unique challenges that face disability allies. Washington and Evans (1991) cite awareness as the first level of ally development. From a social justice perspective, awareness of an issue provides opportunity to examine it critically and determine strategies for change. People rarely speak about disability, and the information that is available is often stereotypical and misleading. As a result, individuals who are not disabled know very little about the causes and ramifications of disability. Increasing the visibility of disability issues and individuals with disabilities is important on college campuses to create awareness and encourage persons who are not disabled to become disability allies. Awareness of an issue must be followed with education (Washington and Evans, 1991). Successful disability-related changes are most likely to occur when people are educated about the issues (Caras, 2004). Accurate information is necessary to dismantle the self-perpetuating cycle of oppression that feeds on each successive generation’s simply accepting the norms and cultural understanding of the previous generation. Incorporating education about disabilities into course work and programming, ensuring that libraries have books and other media about disability, and encouraging students to interact with persons with disabilities are critical factors in ally development. Helpful educational resources include Marks (1999), Barnes and Mercer (2003), and Linton (1998). In addition, the Web sites of the Association on Higher Education and Disability (http://www.ahead.org/), the HEATH Resource Center at George Washington University (http://www. heath.gwu.edu/index.html), and the Standing Committee on Disability of the American College Personnel Association (http://www.myacpa.org/ sc/cd/) provide up-to-date information about disability issues in higher education. The third level of ally development is the development of skills (Washington and Evans, 1991). Necessary skills include communication strategies to counter oppression, such as open and honest dialogue between individuals with disabilities and those without disabilities (Brownlee and Carrington, 2000); organizational techniques to facilitate change, such as Creamer and Creamer’s model of planned change (1986); and critical thinking that challenges and dismantles barriers on both a micro and macro level. Skills can be taught in structured ally development programs or social justice classes, or through mentoring.
Ally Behaviors and Actions Once individuals move through the first three levels of ally development, they have the ability to put their learning into practice through action (Washington and Evans, 1991). In the following two sections, we discuss ways in which allies can help to create a just campus environment for students with disabilities. First, we present the suggestions of several students
with impairments with whom we spoke during a study of involvement. Then we consider specific strategies based on social justice principles. Suggestions from Students with Impairments. The authors of this chapter, collaborating with two other researchers (Evans and others, 2004), conducted a phenomenological study to explore the out-of-class experiences of students with impairments. We divided the students into five groups based on impairment similarities. Each researcher interviewed two respondents and conducted a focus group with students in one of these groups. Through conducting this research, we identified ways in which students with disabilities thought students without disabilities could be supportive. The first suggestion was for students who do not have disabilities to be encouraging and helpful in their interactions with students with disabilities. Jessica (all names used are pseudonyms) was diagnosed with muscular dystrophy and has had significant loss of fine motor skills and muscle strength in her extremities; she uses an electric wheelchair. She recalled how women without disabilities “drug” her along to different events, thereby encouraging her to be involved:
I was in choir in high school and somebody on my dorm floor said that they’re having try-outs ...for [college] choir. . . . , so I went . . . , her just kinda dragging me along. . . . This [other] girl I know who’s in one of my classes. ...she drug me to this off-campus meeting. . . . It’s . . . a social gathering ...and that’s where I met [the friends with whom I now socialize].
Courtney, another student with mobility impairment, expressed similar feelings. She was in a farm accident at a young age that paralyzed her from the waist down so she uses a manual wheelchair. She talked about how other students in band helped her get up the ramp and through doors, which resulted in her feeling like “a part of the group.” While Jessica and Courtney stressed that students without disabilities can be supportive by being encouraging and helpful, one must keep in mind not to overdo it. Respecting the autonomy of individuals is important as well. An attitude that suggests that one knows what is best for an individual with a disability is condescending and insensitive. The second way in which these students thought students without disabilities could be supportive was by increasing their awareness and learning more accurate information about disabilities. One way to learn more is by asking questions. Kay, a twenty-one-year-old junior, was diagnosed with a hearing impairment at the age of two. She shared her feelings about students who did not have disabilities asking her about what it is like to be deaf: “Well, if they REALLY want to learn from me, then that’s great. I like it when they ask me and ...they obviously want to know more. . . . I think that’s really cool and I feel like I have a kinship with those kinds of people.” When students who do not have disabilities are not aware and do not appear to be interested in learning more, it can be a disheartening experience.
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Jamal, a student diagnosed with depression and social anxiety disorder, shared his frustrations with the lack of understanding of mental illness:
[Other students] don’t want to hear about it. You know, if somebody has cancer, they are going to talk about it. But, if somebody has depression, it’s just, “Oh, everybody gets down sometimes.” If somebody has generalized anxiety, then it’s, “Oh, everybody has stress, just deal with it.”. . . You don’t see [any awareness campaigns for mental illness]. What you do see is the little Zoloft guy bouncing around on commercials saying, “Oh, do you feel blue?”
Jamal’s comments reveal the ignorance that individuals can exhibit about mental illness and the inaccurate information that the general public receives from the media. Students who want to be disability allies must learn to distinguish what is reality and what is not by educating themselves about various impairments and the inaccurate ways in which the media often portray them. Finally, one student diagnosed with attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder talked about how students who are not disabled need to increase their knowledge so they would know that students with disabilities are not “breakable.” James, a member of a fraternity, reported, “The president and the chaplain don’t want me to be involved in the house very much anymore because they don’t feel like I can mentally handle it, which isn’t really true, but that’s just their stigma.” James’s comments reveal how a lack of knowledge can cause fear. Any student who wishes to be a disability ally must take steps to learn accurate information in order to dispel the myths and fears that exist about persons with disabilities. Ways of Being a Disability Ally. Given societal attitudes toward individuals with disabilities, we caution readers to carefully consider their motivations for working with this population. Too often individuals become “pseudo-allies” for one of three reasons: (1) to make themselves look good, (2) to benefit from providing services to those with disabilities, or (3) to “help the less fortunate” (Annette, n.d.). In the first case, pseudoallies take advantage of individuals with disabilities for their personal benefit; in the second, they exploit individuals with disabilities; and in the third, they treat individuals with disabilities in a patronizing and condescending manner. To be true disability allies, individuals must work with persons with disabilities, seeing and treating them as equals deserving of respect. The following are actions that allies can take to work effectively with persons with disabilities. These strategies focus on self-education, awareness raising and advocacy, and direct action. Many of the strategies we suggest draw on concepts associated with Universal Design, defined by the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University (1997) as “the design of products and environments to be usable by all people to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized
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design” (p. 1). Essential to this idea is the notion that inclusion rather than adaptation or accommodation should be the goal. Self-Education. Educating oneself is an ongoing process. We encourage allies to learn everything they can about the oppression of persons with disabilities through reading, asking questions, and listening to others. Allies must always be aware of their own privilege as persons who are not disabled and must be open to having others point out when their own behaviors exhibit oppression. Viewing situations and environments from the perspective of a person with a disability is another important learning strategy. We encourage allies to imagine what their experience might be like if they had specific access issues and to listen to the expressed needs and experiences of those who identify as having an impairment. Awareness Raising and Advocacy. A major role that allies can play is questioning accepted practice in order to raise awareness of ways in which individuals with disabilities are oppressed. Questioning involves critically examining the assumptions and expectations of society about how things are done. Examples of awareness-raising behaviors include:
•Asking about the availability of alternative formats when handouts or other materials are distributed and requesting that the issue be addressed if none are available • When attending events, noticing if the location is accessible from both a physical and communication perspective and inquiring with event sponsors or organizers about access issues • Questioning behavior or words that continue the pattern of oppression toward persons with disabilities • Talking with members of social identity groups with whom one identifies about issues of disability oppression to help them understand the links among different forms of oppression • Working to ensure that disability issues are included when diversity is addressed in schools and in the workplace • Working to counter discrimination in housing, employment, and membership or participation in organizations and activities
Direct Action. It is not sufficient to cognitively agree with the concept of social justice as it applies to persons with disabilities or even to advocate on behalf of this population; true allies live their lives in accordance with their beliefs. Direct actions that allies can take include:
•Supporting persons with disabilities in taking leadership roles. • Proactively addressing access issues rather than leaving it up to members of the oppressed group to take action (for example, not patronizing places that are inaccessible). • Making one’s home or environment accessible to persons with disabilities.
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• Countering, on a person-to-person level, stereotypes, misconceptions, and conventional wisdom about the nature of disability and about how people with disabilities perceive, think, feel, act, and comprehend. • Challenging and intervening to prevent harassment, bullying, and other forms of overt hostility. • Providing solidarity in numbers through ally-to-ally outreach. •Being a “safe person” for persons in the process of disclosure of disability status. The parallels between coming out for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and disclosure for people with nonapparent disabilities are particularly striking. •Raising one’s children with disabilities to be effective self-advocates. • Raising one’s children who are not disabled to be effective allies.
Conclusion Social change is created through thoughts, words, and actions. Student affairs professionals have an obligation to educate themselves so they have accurate information about disability and the experiences of students who are disabled. They must also serve as advocates for disability awareness and changes in policy and practice to ensure that individuals with impairments are treated equitably on college campuses. Finally, they have a responsibility to take action when oppression occurs and to work alongside individuals with disabilities to create a positive learning environment in which all students can succeed. If student affairs professionals model these behaviors, students will learn from their example, and disability allies will become a reality on college campuses rather than just a good idea proposed in this volume.
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Campbell, J., Gilmore, L., and Cuskelly, M. “Changing Student Teachers Attitudes Towards Disability and Inclusion.” Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 2003, 28, 369–380. Caras, S. “Summit on Human Rights and Disability.” 2004. [http://www.peoplewho. net/documents/convention.htm]. Castañeda, R., and Peters, M. L. “Ableism.” In M. Adams and others (eds.), Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge, 2000. Center for Universal Design. The Principles of Universal Design. (Version 2.0) Raleigh: North Carolina State University, 1997. Creamer, D. G., and Creamer, E. G. “Applying a Model of Planned Change to Program Innovation in Student Affairs.” Journal of College Student Personnel, 1986, 27, 431–437. Evans, N. J., and others. [Social integration of students with disabilities]. Unpublished raw data, 2004. Favazza, P. C., and Odom, S. L. “Promoting Positive Attitudes of Kindergarten-Age Children Toward People with Disabilities.” Exceptional Children, 1997, 63, 405–418. Fichten, C. S. “Students with Physical Disabilities in Higher Education: Attitudes and Beliefs That Affect Integration.” In H. E. Yuker (ed.), Attitudes Toward Persons with Disabilities. New York: Springer, 1988. Fine, M., and Asch, A. “Disability Beyond Stigma: Social Interaction, Discrimination, and Activism.” In M. Adams and others (eds.), Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge, 2000. Hall, L. M., and Belch, H. A. “Setting the Context: Reconsidering the Principles of Full Participation and Meaningful Access for Students with Disabilities.” In H. A. Belch (ed.), Serving Students with Disabilities. New Directions for Student Services, no. 91. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000. Hannah, M. E. “Teacher Attitudes Toward Children with Disabilities: An Ecological Analysis.” In H. E. Yuker (ed.), Attitudes Toward Persons with Disabilities. New York: Springer, 1988. Horne, M. D. “Modifying Peer Attitudes Toward the Handicapped: Procedures and Research Issues.” In H. E. Yuker (ed.), Attitudes Toward Persons with Disabilities. New York: Springer, 1988. Hughes, B. “Disability and the Body.” In C. Barnes, M. Oliver, and L. Barton (eds.), Disability Studies Today. Cambridge: Polity, 2002. Jones, S. R. “Toward Inclusive Theory: Disability as a Social Construction.” NASPA Journal, 1996, 33, 347–354. Kelly, A. E., Sedlacek, W. E., and Scales, W. R. “How College Students with and Without Disabilities Perceive Themselves and Each Other.” Journal of Counseling and Development, 1994, 73, 178–182. Kowalski, E., and Rizzo, T. “Factors Influencing Preservice Student Attitudes Toward Individuals with Disabilities.” Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 1996, 13(2), 180–196. Linton, S. Claiming Disability: Knowledge and Identity. New York: New York University Press, 1998. Makas, E. “Positive Attitudes Toward Disabled People: Disabled and Non-Disabled Persons’ Perspective.” Journal of Social Issues, 1988, 44, 49–61. Maras, P., and Brown, R. “Effects of Contact on Children’s Attitudes Toward Disability.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1996, 26, 2113–2134. Marks, D. Disability: Controversial Debates and Psychosocial Perspectives. New York: Routledge, 1999. Michalko, R. The Difference That Disability Makes. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002. Pernice, R., and Lys, K. “Interventions for Attitude Change Towards People with Disabilities: How Successful Are They?” International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 1996, 19(2), 171–174.
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Rauscher, L., and McClintock, M. “Ableism Curriculum Design.” In M. Adams, L. A. Bell, and P. Griffin (eds.), Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice: A Sourcebook. New York: Routledge, 1997. Slininger, D., Sherrill, C., and Jankowski, C. M. “Children’s Attitudes Toward Peers with Severe Disabilities: Revisiting Contact Theory.” Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 2000, 17, 176–196. Tregaskis, C. “Interviewing Non-Disabled People About Their Disability-Related Attitudes: Seeking Methodologies.” Disability and Society, 2000, 15, 343–353. Washington, J., and Evans, N. J. “Becoming an Ally.” In N. J. Evans and V. A. Wall (eds.), Beyond Tolerance: Gays, Lesbians and Bisexuals on Campus. Washington, D.C.: American College Personnel Association, 1991. Wesson, C., and Mandell, C. “Simulations: Promoting Understanding of Handicapping Conditions.” Teaching Exceptional Children, 1989, 22(1), 32–35. Yuker, H. E. “The Effects of Contact on Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons: Some Empirical Generalizations.” In H. E. Yuker (ed.), Attitudes Toward Persons with Disabilities. New York: Springer, 1988.
NANCY J. EVANS is professor and higher education program co-coordinator
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